Naish languages

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Naish
Geographic distribution	Yunnan and Sichuan
Linguistic classification	Sino-Tibetan Tibeto-Burman Loloish or Qiangic (?) Naic Naish
Proto-language	Proto-Naish
Subdivisions	Naxi Mosuo (Na) Laze
Language codes
Glottolog	`nais1236`

The Naish languages are a low-level subgroup of Sino-Tibetan languages that include Naxi, Na (Mosuo), and Laze.

Classification

The Naish languages are:

Naish
- Naxi
- Na (Narua, Mosuo)
- Laze

In turn, Naish together with Namuyi and Shixing constitutes the Naic subgroup within Sino-Tibetan.

Arguments for relatedness include irregular morphotonology: tone patterns of numeral-plus-classifier phrases that constitute shared structural properties. Since these similarities are phonetically nontransparent, they cannot be due to borrowing.^[1]

Names

Note that in Mainland China, the term "Naxi" is commonly used for the entire language group, e.g. by the influential linguistic introduction by He and Jiang (2015).^[2]^[3] The terms "Naish" and "Naic" are derived from the endonym Na used by speakers of several of the languages. These concepts were initially proposed by Guillaume Jacques & Alexis Michaud (2011).^[4] Phylogenetic issues are summarized in the entry about the Naic subgroup. For a review of the literature about Naish languages, see Li (2015).^[5]

Tentative Sino-Tibetan family tree proposed by Jacques & Michaud (2011)

Lexical innovations

Jacques & Michaud (2011) list the following words as Naish lexical innovations.

Gloss	Naxi	Na	Laze	Proto-Naish
to stumble	pe˧	k^hɯ.pi^M		*(S)pa
cloud	ki˩	tɕi˧	tɕi˩sɯ˥	*ki
village	hi˧mbe˧	fv̩.bi^L	ɖɯ˧bie˧	*mba
Bai people	le˧bv̩˧	ɬi.bv̩^M		*Sla
noble		sɯ.p^hi^M	sɯ˩p^hie˩	*si p^ha
medicine (2nd syllable)	ʈʂ^hɚ˧ɯ˧	ʈʂ^hæ.ɯ^H	ts^hɯ˧fi˧	*rts^hi Swri

Reconstruction

Proto-Naish, the proto-language ancestral to the Naish languages, has been reconstructed by Jacques & Michaud (2011). Another reconstruction of Proto-Naish by Zihe Li is in progress; he has published articles detailing open-syllable rhymes,^[6] laterals,^[7] pre-initials,^[8] and retroflex finals.^[9]

Phoneme inventory

The Proto-Naish consonant inventory is as follows:

Proto-Naish consonants
Type		Labial	Coronal	Dorsal	Uvular
Nasals		*m	*n	*ŋ
Stops	voiceless	*p	*t	*k	*q
	voiced	*b	*d	*ɡ
	aspirated	*pʰ	*tʰ	*kʰ	*qʰ
Fricatives			s z ɕ ɕʰ
Affricates			ts tsʰ tɕ tɕʰ
Liquids and glides		*w	r l *l̥	*j

The Proto-Naish vowel inventory is disputed; Jacques and Michaud reconstruct seven vowels /æ ɑ i ĩ o ɔ u/ (notated in their paper with ⟨*a *aC₁ *i *iN *o *aC₂ *u⟩ respectively). On the other hand, Li reconstructs a simple five-vowel system /a e i o u/.

According to Jacques and Michaud, Proto-Naish syllables are exclusively open syllables, not counting the /ĩ/ rhyme spelled by Jacques and Michaud as *iN. This situation came about due to a total loss of all pre-Naish coda consonants without a trace; pre-Naish vowels in closed syllables have identical outcomes to their open-syllable counterparts. However, Li believes that there are enough traces of the lost consonants to reconstruct a proto-Naish with closed syllables.

Reflexes of vowels

The reflexes of vowels depend heavily on the preceding consonant. Jacques and Michaud employ the following cover symbols:

K for velar stops
TS for affricates and sibilants
R for *r and clusters that result in retroflex consonants in attested Naish
S for *r or *s

Jacques & Michaud

The vowel reflexes in Naish as charted by Jacques and Michaud are as follows.

Naish reflexes of Proto-Naish vowels (Jacques and Michaud)
Vowel	Preceding consonant(s)	Naxi	Na	Laze
*æ	K	ɑ	ɑ	ɑ
	TS	e	e	e
	*w	ɯ	i	i
	Velar + *w	ɑ	ɤ	ɤ
	R	ɯ	e	ɯ
	Elsewhere	e	i	ie
*ɑ	Everywhere	ɑ	ɑ	ɑ
*ɔ	Everywhere	o	o	u
*i	TS or R	ɯ	ɯ	ɯ
	*m	i	v̩	v̩
	*kr	ɯ	ɯ	i
	Elsewhere	i	i	i
*ĩ	Any cluster with *r; ɕ	ɚ	æ	æ
*ĩ	TS	ɚ	i	i
*u	TS	ɯ	i	y
	Labial stop + *r	ɚ	v̩	v̩
	Elsewhere	v̩	v̩	v̩
*o	Everywhere	u	u	u

Li

Li, who reconstructs only a five-vowel system /a e i o u/, charts the vowel reflexes as follows:

Naish reflexes of Proto-Naish vowels (Li)
Vowel	Preceding consonant(s)	Naxi	Malimasa	Na
*a	K	ɑ	ɑ	ɑ
	TS	e	ɛ	e
	(C)w but not Pw or Kw	ɯ	ɯ	i
	Velar + *w	ɑ	ɑ	ɤ
	Labial + *w	u	ɑ	o
	R	ɯ	ɤ	e
	Preglottalized R	u	ɚ	e
	*mr-	ɯ	e	i
	Elsewhere	e	ɛ	i
*e	TS	i	ie	i
	K	ɯ	ɤ	i
	Cr	ɚ	ɚ	a
	*m	i	o	v̩
*i	nj or Kj	i	i	i
	*Kr	ɯ	i	ɯ
	Elsewhere	ɯ	ɯ	ɯ
*o	Cr	ɚ	o	v̩
	P	v̩	o	v̩
	Elsewhere	u	u	o
*u	TS	ɯ	v̩	i
	ɕ and j	y	u	u
	*m	ɯ	v̩	v̩
	Elsewhere	v̩	v̩	v̩

Li also provides reflexes of various closed syllables he reconstructs:^[10]

Proto-Naish closed syllable reflexes
Rhyme	Context	Naxi	Malimasa	Na
-ak	T-	ɑ	ɑ	ɑ^[a]
	Kw-^[b]	ɑ	ɑ	ɤ
	P-	u	ɑ	o
	r-^[c]	a	a	a
-aɣ	T-	o	u	o
	Cw-^[d]	ɚ	o	a
	Kr-, Cj-	ɤ	ɤ	ɤ
	Cr-^[e]	wɑ	o	wa
-eɣ^[f]	s-	ɚ	i	i
-oɣ	(anywhere)	o	o	o
-at	(anywhere)	ɑ	ɑ	ɑ ~ a
-al	P-	ɤ	ɑ	ɤ
	Ts-	a	wa	wa
	Retroflexes^[g]	wɑ	wa	wa
-el	s-	ɯ	ɚ	ɯ
-el	(elsewhere)	ɤ	ɤ	ɯ
-il	(anywhere)	???	i	o
-ul	Retroflexes	ɚ	o	ɻ̩
-ul	(elsewhere)	ɯ	o	ɯ
-ap	TS^[h]	y	y	i
-ap	(elsewhere)	o	u	o
-am	(anywhere)	a	a	a

↑ Occasionally [o].
↑ Corresponds to Burmese wa after velars.
↑ The *r- becomes /l/ in Malimasa but is deleted in Naxi and Na.
↑ The *w- was lost in Naxi and Malimasa.
↑ Where C is not a velar.
↑ Other members of this rhyme group reconstructed by Li have special developments. He also reconstructs this rhyme for Naxi /ʈʂɚ˥/, Malimasa /tsɯ˩˧go˩˧/, and Na /ʈʂa˧˥/ (meaning "ankle"), and for Naxi /tɕɚ˧pɚ˩/, Malimasa /ie˧ʈʂu˧/ and Na /ʁa˧ʈv˥/ (meaning "neck").
↑ This reflex also appears in Naxi /wa˧/, Malimasa /wa˧/ and Na /ʁwa˧/ "left side", which Li compares to Tibetan g.yon and Burmese way.
↑ Any affricate or fricative.

Reflexes of consonants

Naish features up to five series of stop corresponences: aspirated, voiceless, voiced, prenasalized voiced, and prenasalized voiceless.

Naish reflexes of Proto-Naish consonants
Class	Proto-Naish	Naxi	Na	Laze
Labial stops	pʰ	pʰ	pʰ	pʰ
	p	p	p	p
	b	b	b	b
	mb	mb	b	b
	mp	p	b	b
Coronal stops	tʰ	tʰ	tʰ	tʰ
	t	t	t	t
	d	d	d	d
	nd	nd	d	d
Velar stops	kʰ	kʰ	kʰ (before u, o) qʰ (before a, ɔ) tɕʰ (before *i)	kʰ (most places) tsʰ (before *i)
	k	k	k q (before a) tɕ (before i)	k q (before a) tɕ (before i)
	g	g	g	g
	ŋg	ŋg	g	g
	ŋk	k	ʁ	(inconsistent)
Uvular stops	qʰ	kʰ	qʰ	qʰ
	q	?	q	q
	ɴq	k	ʁ	ʁ
Sibilants	s	s	s	s
	z	z	z	z
	ɕ	ʂ	ʂ	ʂ
Affricates	tsʰ	tsʰ	tsʰ	tsʰ
	ts	ts	ts	ts
	dz	dz	dz	dz
	ndz	ndz	dz	dz
	tɕʰ	ʈʂʰ	ʈʂʰ	ʈʂʰ
	tɕ	k	tɕ	tɕ
Sonorants	l	l	l	l
	l̥	h	ɬ	ɬ
	m	m	m	m
	n	n	n	n
	ŋ	ŋ	ŋ	ŋ
	j	(lost)	ʑ	z

Reflexes of consonant clusters

Proto-Naish possessed many syllable-initial consonant clusters that were simplified in the Naish languages.

Jacques and Michaud

In the following chart, the following cover symbols are used:

S standing for *s or *r;
C standing for a stop.
N standing for a nasal consonant.

Reflexes of Proto-Naish consonant clusters
Cluster type	Cluster	Naxi	Na	Laze
C₁C₂	Cb	b	(lost)	v
	Ck	?	h	h
	Cg	g	(lost)	?
S-initial	Sp	p	p	f
	Sb	b	b	(w)
	Smb	mb	b	v
	St	t	t	ʈ
	sk	k	k	f
	Sŋk	k	ʁ	(w)
	Sl	l	ɬ	ɬ
	SN	h	h	h
	Sw	h	h	f
Preserved Cw clusters	kʰw	kʰw	qʰw	kʰw
Preserved Cw clusters	ŋw	?	ŋw	ŋw
Cr clusters	pr	p	p	p
	pʰr	pʰ	pʰ	pʰ
	br	b	b	b
	kr	k	k	ts
	tr	ʈʂ	ʈʂ	ʈʂ
	gr	g	g	?
	Cŋkr	kj	ʁ	ʁ
	Cŋgr	ŋgj	ʁ	ʁ
R-initial	rl	l	ɻ	l
	rt	?	ʈ	?
	rd	nd	ɖ	ɖ
	rts	ʈʂ	ʈʂ	ts
	rtsʰ	ʈʂʰ	ʈʂʰ	tsʰ
	rs	ʂ	ʂ	s
Miscellaneous	Cdz	dz	z	z

Li

Li's own analysis of consonant clusters is as follows. He reconstructs two types of pre-initial: homorganic nasal pre-initials, and a non-homorganic pre-initial *C₁ (C in the below table).

Proto-Naish consonant clusters (Li)
Class	Cluster	Naxi			Malimasa	Na
Class	Cluster	Lijiang	Baoshan	Bowan	Malimasa	Ninglang	Yongning
C-initial	Cp	p	p	p	x	χ	p
	Cb	b	b	b	w	ʁ	b
	Cmb	b	b	mb	w	ʁ	b
	Cd	d	d	d	l	(lost)	d
	Cl	x			x		ɬ
	Cdz	dʑ	dʑ	dz	tɕʰ	tɕʰ	dʑ
	Ck	k	k	k	(ɣ)	ʁ	ʁ
	Cg	k	k	g	(lost)	(lost)	ʁ
	Cng	g	ŋg	ŋg	(lost)	ʁ	ʁ
	Cq	k	q	k	ɣ	ʁ	ʁ
NC-	mb	b	mb	mb	(m)b	b	b
	nd	d	nd	nd	(n)d	d	d
	nl̥	l	l	l	x	ɬ	ɬ
	ŋg	g	ŋg	ŋg	(ŋ)g	g	g
	ndz	dz	ndz	ndz	(n)dz	dz	dz
r-medial	pr	p	p	p	p or tʂ	p	p
	pʰr	pʰ	pʰ	pʰ	pʰ or tʂʰ	pʰ or tʂʰ	pʰ
	br	b	b	b	b	b	b
	mbr	b	mb	mb	b	b	b
	tr	t	t	t	tʂ	tʂ	t
	tʰr	tʰ	tʰ	tʰ	ʂ	ʂ	ʈ
	ndr	d	nɖ	nɖ	ɖ	ɖ	dʐ
	nr	n	ɳ	n	ɳ	ɳ	ɳ
	tsr	tʂ	tʂ	tʂ	ts	ts	tʂ
	tsʰr	tʂʰ	tʂʰ	tʂʰ	tsʰ	tsʰ	tʂʰ
	sr	ʂ	ʂ	ʂ	s	s	ʂ
	kr	k or tɕ	k or tɕ	k or c	tɕ or tʂ or k	tɕ or k	k
	kʰr	kʰ	kʰ	kʰ	tɕʰ	tɕʰ	kʰ
	gr	g	g	g	dʐ	dʐ	g
	ŋgr	g	ŋg	ŋg	dʐ	dʐ	g
	xr	x	x	h	ʂ	ʂ	x
Misc.	lj	l			ɭ/ʐ		l/ʐ

References

↑ Michaud, Alexis (2011). "The tones of numerals and numeral-plus-classifier phrases: on structural similarities between Naxi, Na and Laze". Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 34: 1–26 – via Hyper Articles en Ligne.
↑ He Jiren 和即仁 & Jiang Zhuyi 姜竹仪. 1985. Naxiyu Jianzhi 纳西语简志 (A Brief Description of the Naxi Language). Beijing 北京: Minzu Chubanshe 民族出版社.
↑ Michaud, Alexis, He Limin & Zhong Yaoping. 2015. "Naxi / Naish." In Rint Sybesma, Wolfgang Behr, Zev Handel & C.T. James Huang (eds.), Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics. Leiden: Brill.
↑ Jacques, Guillaume, and Alexis Michaud. 2011. "Approaching the historical phonology of three highly eroded Sino-Tibetan languages: Naxi, Na and Laze." Diachronica 28:468-498.
↑ Li Zihe 李子鹤. 2015. 纳西语言研究回顾——兼论语言在文化研究中的基础地位 (A review of Naxi language studies, with a discussion of the fundamental role of cultural studies for linguistic research). 茶马古道研究期刊 4. 125–131.
↑ Li, Zihe (2024). "Probing the Evolution History of Naish Languages with Reference to Tibetan, Burmese and Rgyalrong: The Open-Syllable Rhymes". Journal of Chinese Linguistics. doi:10.1353/jcl.2017.a942140. ISSN 2411-3484.
↑ Li, Zihe (2024). "The origin and evolution of laterals in Proto-Naish". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 87 (1): 169–187. doi:10.1017/S0041977X22000775. ISSN 0041-977X.
↑ Li, Zihe (2020). "原始納西語前冠音的來源與演變" [The Origin and Evolution of Pre-initials of Proto-Naish] (PDF). Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics. 12 (2): 201–228. doi:10.1163/2405478X-01202003. ISSN 1933-6985. Retrieved March 6, 2025.
↑ Li, Zihe (2014). "THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF RETROFLEX FINALS IN NAISH LANGUAGES". Journal of Chinese Linguistics. 42 (2): 309–329.
↑ Li, Zihe (2022). "A Naish Historical Phonology: The Rhyme System".